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Overview: Piezo Actuators, Stacks, Benders, Tubes, Shear Actuators, (Nano-Transducers), Piezo Stages, Piezo Motors, Piezo Mirrors

PICMA® High Performance Actuators Piezo Shear Actuators, Multi-Axis Actuators Piezo Closed-Loop Actuators with Casing Piezo Actuators &
Tubes with No Casing		 Piezo Benders & Composite Transducers

Extreme Lifetime
Sub-msec Response
Sub-nm Resolution
Compact
Picometer-Resolution
X, XY, XZ and XYZ
Sub-msec Response
Vacuum Compatible
Travel: to 180 microns

High Load Capacity
Extreme Reliability
Sub-nm Resolution
Closed- & Open-Loop
Low Operating Voltage
Ceramic Encapsulation

Long Travel Flexure Actuators & Stages Piezo Linear
Motors		 Miniature Piezo Linear Motors Piezo Tip/Tilt
Mirrors		 Piezo
Controllers

Precision Flexure Guided
Travel to 1.8 mm
1 to 6 Axes

Velocity to 400 mm/s
Push/Pull Forces to 10 N
Travel: to Several
    100 mm

True Linear Motor Slide
Compact: 8 mm Long
Travel Range 2 mm

1-3 Axis
Open- & Closed-Loop
Frictionless Flexure
    Guides

1 to 12 Channels
Modular Systems
Analog & Digital
 
PI offers the largest selection of research and industrial-reliability Piezo Actuators (Multilayer Stacks, Shear Actuators, Tube Actuators, Bender Actuators, Piezo Translators, Linear Actuators) worldwide. In addition to the hundreds of models presented in the PI catalog, we manufacture custom designs tailored to customers’ requirements. PI is highly vertically integrated, controlling each manufacturing step from piezo raw materials to finished systems. More Information...
Piezoelectric (Piezo) Actuators and Ceramics
Applications for Piezo Actuators
Piezo Ceramics for Custom and OEM Applications
Piezo Actuator Experience
Mounting Guidelines for Piezo Translators
Piezo Motors
Piezo Actuator Tutorium; Learn More about Piezos
Hexapod Robots, Nanopositioning Systems
PI's Piezoceramic Division: Custom Assemblies, Materials and More
Nanopositioning Systems, Scanning Stages
 Selection Guide: Piezo Actuators, Piezo Ceramics
Piezo Ceramic Stacks (unpackaged): Multilayer (PICMA®), High-Force PICA-Actuators, Miniature PZT Actuators
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-882 - P-888 P-882 -
P-888		 PICMA® Multilayer piezo stacks, cofired ceramic encapsulation, extreme lifetime,
cross-sections: 2 x 3 to 10 x 10 mm		 to 4000 / 20** 5, 9, 15, 30 -
PL022, PL033, PL055 PL022
PL033
PL055		 PICMA®-Chip.
Smallest multilayer piezo actuators,
from 2 x 2 x 2 mm		 to 1000 / 5** 2, 3 -
P-007 - P-056 P-007 -
P-056		 PICA™-Stack piezo actuators,
wide variety, high-force capacity		 to 80000 / 300** 5 to 300 optional
P-010.xxP - P-056.xxP P-010.xxP -
P-056.xxP		 PICA™-Power. stack actuators, wide variety,
for high-level dynamics and high temperatures		 to 80000 / 300** 5 to 300 optional
Small Piezo Stack Actuators With Steel Casing
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-810 P-810 Only 6 mm diameter, ferromagnetic end pieces 50 / 1 15, 30, 45 -
P-820 P-820 Smallest preloaded piezo translator 50 / 10 15, 30, 45 -
P-250 P-855 Piezo tip for micrometer 100 / 5 20 -
P-830 P-830 Compact, ferromagnetic endpieces 1000 / 5 15, 30, 45, 60 -
Preloaded Piezo Stack Actuators for Medium Loads, with Position Sensor (optional)
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-840 P-840 /
P-841		 Preloaded, optional ball tip 1000 / 50 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 SGS
P-842 P-842 /
P-843		 Preloaded, higher tensile limit than P-840 800 / 300 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 SGS
P-212.gif P-212 Preloaded, long travel ranges 2000 / 300 15 to 120 SGS
New HVPZT Piezo Actuators
Preloaded High-load Piezo Stack Actuators, with Position Sensor (optional)
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-844 / P-845 P-844 /
P-845		 Preloaded, optional waterproof case 3000 / 700 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 SGS
P-216 P-216 Preloaded, long travel ranges 4500 / 500 15 to 180 SGS
Preloaded Ultra High-load Piezo Stack Actuators, with Position Sensor (optional)
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-225 - P-235.gif P-225 /
P-235		 Preloaded, (very) high stiffness,
optional waterproof case.		 12500 / 2000,
30000 / 3500		 15 to 120
15 to 180		 SGS
Ultra-High-Precision Actuators with Flexure Guidance and Direct Metrology Sensors
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-753 P-753 Flexure guidance, ultra-precise 100 / 20 12, 25, 38 Capacitive, directmetrology
Actuators with Long Travel Ranges / Flexure Guided Actuators
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-290 P-290 Long-range piezo translator, 1 mm travel,
with flexure guidance		 50 / 10 1000 -
P-287 P-287 Travel range to 0.7 mm, with flexure guidance, rotation to 12 mrad 80 / 10 700 µm, 12 mrad -
P-783 P-783 Closed-loop, with flexure guidance 20 / 10 300 LVDT
P-601 P-601 Closed-loop, with flexure guidance 30 / 10 110, 300, 400 SGS
Shear Actuators: X, XY, XYZ
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-111 - P-151 P-111 -
P-151		 PICA™-Shear shear-effect actuator: Compact, X, XY, XYZ, e.g. for scanning-microscopy, optional clear aperture 10 to 300 1 to 10 x 10 x 10 -
Piezo Tube and Tubular Stack (Ring) Actuators
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-010.xxH - P-025.xxH P-010.xxH -
P-025.xxH		 PICA™-Thru ring actuators combine the advantages of piezo tubes with the high forces of stack actuators to 60000 / 250** 5 to 300 optional
PT-120 - PT-140 PT120 -
PT140		 PT-Tube piezo tube actuators, minimum tolerances 0,1 / 0,1 4, 6, 8 -
Piezo Composite Patch Transducer
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
P-876 P-876 DuraAct™ piezoelectric patch transducers offer the functionality of piezoceramic materials as sensors and actuators as well as for electrical charge generation and storage. to 775
Bender Actuators / Bimorph Actuators (travel ranges to 2 mm)
Click Image for Data Sheet Models* Description Compressive /
Tensile Limits [N]		 Travel [µm] Sensor
PL112 - PL140 PL122 -
PL140		 PICMA® multilayer bender actuators, cofired ceramic encapsulation, low operating voltage 1 / 1 500, 900, 2000 -
P-871 P-871 PICMA® multilayer bender actuators with position sensors 1 / 1 160 to 1600 -
PILine® Ultrasonic Piezo Linear Motors for OEMs
Click Image for
Data Sheet		 Models* Description Load
Capacity [kg]		 Travel [mm] Drive
P-653 P-653 Miniature Piezo Linear Motors for OEMs:
9.0 x 6.5 x 2.4 mm3 		0.005 3.2 PILine® ultrasonic motor
P-661, P-668 P-661
P-664
P-668		 Ultrasonic OEM piezo linear motors, small, light, very fast - - PILine® ultrasonic motor
M-674 M-674 RodDrive Ultrasonic Piezo Linear Motor Pusher for OEMs 0.7 100 PILine® ultrasonic motor
NEXLINE® & NEXACT® Ultra-High-Resolution Nanopositioning Drives
Click Image for
Data Sheet		 Models* Description Load
Capacity [kg]		 Travel [mm] Drive
N-110 N-111 NEXLINE® PiezoWalk® nanopositioning drive, subnanometer resolution. 8 5 Piezo-Walk®
N-214 N-214 NEXLINE® PiezoWalk® high-load nanopositioning drive, subnanometer resolution. 60 20 Piezo-Walk®
N-310 N-310 NEXACT® Ultra-compact nanopositioning drive, subnanometer resolution. 1 20 Piezo-Walk®


* Ask about custom sizes, sensors or special designs.
** Preloading increases tensile force capacity
SGS = high-resolution strain gauge sensor LVDT = Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 Piezo Ceramic Materials / Components .




Hexapods    Piezo    Nanopositioning Catalog   Capacitive Sensors Nanopositioning Micropositioning PI-USA
Nano-Transducers Transducers Nano Nanoactuators Actuators Nanoautomation Piezoelectric Ceramics Translation Stages Ultrasonic Piezo Motor
Catalog 1998/ Tutorial: Piezoelectric Nanopositioning Systems Introduction PI offers the largest selection of research and industrial grade Piezo Translators, Piezo Flexure NanoPositioners & Scanners and Piezo Tip/Tilt Platforms worldwide. In addition to the hundreds of models presented in this catalog, we manufacture custom designs tailored to our customer's requirements. PI's highly vertically integrated structure allows control of each manufacturing step from PZT raw material to finished NanoPositioning systems. Advantages of Piezoelectric Positioning Systems Unlimited Resolution A piezoelectric actuator (PZT) can produce extremely fine position changes down to the sub-nanometer range. The smallest changes in operating voltage are converted into smooth movements. Motion is not influenced by stiction/friction or threshold voltages. Large Force Generation PZTs can generate a force of several 10,000 N. PI offers units that can bear loads up to several tons and position within a range of more than 100 µm with sub-nanometer resolution (see page 34 in "PZT Actuators" section). Fast Expansion Piezo actuators offer the fastest response time available (microsecond time constants). Acceleration rates of more than 10,000 g's can be obtained. No Magnetic Fields The piezo effect is related to electrical fields. PZT actuators don’t produce magnetic fields nor are they affected by magnetic fields. They are specially well suited for applications where magnetic fields cannot be tolerated. Low Power Consumption The piezo effect directly converts electrical energy into motion only absorbing electrical energy during movement. Static operation, even holding heavy loads, does not consume power. No Wear and Tear A piezo actuator has neither gears nor rotating shafts. Its displacement is based on solid state dynamics and shows no wear and tear. PI has conducted endurance tests on PZTs in which no change in performance was observed after several billion cycles. Vacuum and Clean Room Compatible Piezo actuators are ceramic elements that do not need any lubricants and show no wear and abrasion. This makes them clean room compatible and ideally suited for Ultra High Vacuum applications. Operation at Cryogenic Temperatures The piezo effect is based on electric fields and functions down to zero degrees Kelvin (with reduced specifications). Applications for Piezo Actuators Optics, Photonics and Measuring Technology • Image stabilization • Scanning microscopy • Auto focus systems • Interferometry • Fiber optic alignment & switching • Fast mirror scanners • Adaptive and active optics • Laser tuning • Mirror positioning • Holography • Stimulation of vibrations Disk Drive • MR head testing • Pole tip recession • Disk spin stands • Vibration cancellation Microelectronics • Nano-metrology • Wafer and mask positioning • Critical dimension measurement • Microlithography • Inspection systems • Vibration cancellation Precision Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering • Vibration cancellation • Structural deformation • Out-of-roundness grinding, drilling, turning • Tool adjustment • Wear correction • Needle valve actuation • Micro pumps • Linear drives • Piezo hammers • Knife edge control in extrusion tools • Micro engraving systems • Shock wave generation Life Science, Medicine, Biology • Patch-clamp drives • Gene technology • Micro manipulation • Cell penetration • Micro dispensing devices • Audiophysiological stimulation • Shock wave generation Glossary Actuator: A device that produces motion (displacement). Blocked force: The maximum force an actuator can generate if blocked by an infinitely rigid restraint. Ceramic: A polycrystalline, inorganic material. Closed loop operation: The actuator is used with a position sensor, providing feedback to the position servo controller compensating for nonlinearity, hysteresis and creep (see open loop). Compliance: Strain produced per unit stress. The reciprocal of stiffness. Creep: An unwanted positive or negative increase in the displacement over time. Curie Temperature: The temperature at which the crystalline structure changes from a piezoelectric (non-symmetrical) to a non-piezoelectric (symmetrical) form. At this temperature PZT ceramics looses the piezoelectric properties. Domain: A region of electric dipoles with similar orientation. Drift: See creep HVPZT: Acronym for High Voltage PZT (actuator). Hysteresis: Hysteresis is based on crystalline polarization effects and molecular friction and occurs when reversing direction. Hysteresis is not to be confused with backlash. LVPZT: Acronym for Low Voltage PZT (translator). Multilayer actuator: An actuator manufactured in a fashion similar to multilayer ceramic capacitors. Active ceramic material and electrode material are "co-fired" in one step. Layer thickness is typically on the order of 20 to 100 µm. Open loop operation: The actuator is used without a position sensor. Displacement roughly corresponds to the drive voltage. Creep, nonlinearity and hysteresis are not compensated for. Piezoelectric Materials: Materials that change their dimensions when a voltage is applied and produce a charge when pressure is applied. Polarization: The electric orientation of molecules in a piezoelectric material. PZT: Acronym for Plumbum (lead) Zirconate Titanate. Polycrystalline ceramic material with piezoelectric properties. Often used as an alternative to piezo. Stiffness: The spring constant (of a piezo actuator). Translator: An actuator that produces linear motion (displacement). Piezoelectric actuators (PZTs) offer the user several benefits and advantages over other motion techniques: • Repeatable nanometer and sub-nanometer sized steps at high frequency can be achieved with PZTs because they derive their motion through solid state crystal effects. There are no moving parts (no "stick-slip" effect). • PZTs can be designed to move heavy loads (several tons) or can be made to move lighter loads at frequencies of several 10 kHz. • PZTs act as capacitive loads and require very little power in static operation, simplifying power supply needs. • PZTs require no maintenance because they are solid state and their motion is based on molecular effects within the ferroelectric crystals. With high-reliability PZT materials a strain on the order of 1/1000 (0.1%) can be achieved; this means that a 100 mm long PZT actuator can expand by 100 micrometers when the maximum allowable field is applied. Low Voltage and High Voltage PZTs Two main types of piezo actuators are available: low voltage (multilayer) devices requiring about 100 volts for full motion and high voltage devices requiring about 1000 volts for full extension. Modern piezo ceramics capable of greater motion replace the natural material used by the Curies, in both types of devices. Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) based ceramic materials are most often used today. Actuators made of this ceramic are often referred to as PZT actuators. The maximum electrical field PZT ceramics can withstand is on the order of 1 to 2 kV/mm. In order to keep the operating voltage within practical limits, PZT actuators consist of thin layers of electroactive ceramic material electrically connected in parallel (Fig. xx). The net positive displacement is the sum of the strain of the individual layers. The thickness of the individual layer determines the maximum operating voltage for the actuator (for more information see Displacement of Piezo Actuators (Stack & Contraction Type), page 17). High voltage piezo actuators are constructed from 0.5 to 1.0 mm layers while low voltage piezo actuators are monolithic (diffusion bonded) multilayer designs constructed from 20 to 100 µm layers. Both types of piezo actuators can be used for many applications: Low voltage actuators facilitate drive electronics design, high voltage types operate to higher temperatures (150 °C compared to 80 °C). Due to manufacturing technology high voltage ceramics can be designed with larger cross-sections for higher load applications (up to several tons) than low voltage ceramics. Resolution Piezo actuators have no "stick slip" effect and therefore offer theoretically unlimited resolution. This feature is important since PZTs used in atomic force microscopes are often required to move distances less than one atomic diameter. In practice, actual resolution can be limited by a number of factors such as piezo amplifier (electric noise results in unwanted displacement), sensor & control electronics (noise and sensitivity to EMI affect the positional resolution and stability) and mechanical parameters (design and mounting precision of the sensor, actuator and preload influence micro-friction which limits resolution and accuracy). PI Closed Loop PZT Actuators provide sub-nanometer resolution and stability. Open and Closed Loop Operation PZT actuators can be operated in open loop and closed loop. In open loop, displacement roughly corresponds to the drive voltage. This mode is ideal when the absolute position accuracy is not critical or when the position is controlled by data provided by an external sensor (interferometer, CCD chip etc.). Open loop piezo actuators exhibit hysteresis and creep behavior (like other open loop positioning systems). Closed loop actuators are ideal for applications requiring high linearity, long-term position stability, repeatability and accuracy. PI Closed Loop PZT Actuators & Systems are equipped with position measuring systems providing sub-nanometer resolution and bandwidth up to 10 kHz. A servo controller (digital or analog) determines the output voltage to the PZT by comparing a reference signal (commanded position) to the actual sensor fed back position signal (for more information see "Position Servo Control (Closed Loop Operation)", page29). PI has designed multi-axis Closed Loop PZT positioners that offer the possibility of repeatedly locating a point within a 1 x 1 x 1 nanometer cube (see "PZT Flexure NanoPositioners" section for more information). It is important to remember that such accuracy is obtainable only if the surrounding environment is controlled, since temperature changes and vibrations will cause changes in position at the nanometer level. Dynamic Behavior A piezo actuator can reach its nominal displacement in approximately 1/3 of the period of the resonant frequency. Rise times on the order of microseconds and accelerations of more than 10,000 g's are possible. This feature permits rapid switching applications. Injector nozzle valves, hydraulic valves, electrical relays, adaptive optics and optical switches are a few examples of fast-switching applications. Resonant frequencies of industrial reliability piezo actuators range from a few tens of kHz for actuators with total travel of a few microns to a few kHz for actuators with travel more than 100 microns. These figures are valid for the piezo itself; an additional load will decrease the resonant frequency as a function of the square root of the mass (quadrupling the mass will halve the resonant frequency). Piezo actuators are not designed to be driven at resonant frequency (with full stroke and load), as the resulting high dynamic forces might endanger the structural integrity of the ceramic material. Mechanical Considerations Stiffness In a first approximation, a piezo actuator can be regarded as a spring/mass system. The stiffness or spring constant of a piezo actuator depends on the Young's Modulus of the ceramic (approximately 25 % that of steel), the cross section and length of the active material and a number of other nonlinear parameters (for more information see "Stiffness", page 20). Load Capacity and Force Generation PZT ceramics can withstand high pushing forces and carry loads to several tons. Even when fully loaded, the PZT will not lose any travel as long as the maximum load capacity is not exceeded. Load capacity and force generation must be distinguished. The maximum force (blocked force) a piezo can generate is determined by the product of the stiffness and the total travel. A piezo actuator (as most other actuators) pushing against a spring load will not reach its nominal displacement. The reduction in displacement is dependent on the ratio of the piezo stiffness to the spring stiffness. As the spring stiffness increases, the displacement decreases and the generated force increases (for more information see Stiffness, page 20). Protection from Mechanical Damage Since PZT ceramics are brittle and cannot withstand high pulling or shear forces, the mechanical actuator design must isolate these undesirable forces from the ceramic. For example, spring preloads can be integrated in the mechanical actuator assembly to compress the ceramic inside and increase the ceramic’s pulling capabilities for dynamic push/pull applications (for more information see Mounting Guidelines, page 39). Power Requirements Piezo actuators operate as capacitive loads. Since the current leakage rate of the ceramic material is very low (resistance >> 10 M?), piezo actuators consume almost no energy in a static application and therefore produce virtually no heat. In dynamic applications the power consumption increases linearly with frequency and actuator capacitance. High-load actuators with larger ceramic cross sections have higher capacitance than small actuators. For example, a typical medium load LVPZT actuator with a motion range of 15 microns and 10 kg load capacity requires only five watts to be driven at 1000 Hz while a high load actuator capable of carrying a few tons may require hundreds of watts for the same frequency (for more information see Electrical Requirements for Piezo Operation / Driving a PZT, page 25). Different Piezo Actuator Designs to Suit Various Applications Stack Actuators (Translators) The most common form of piezo actuator is a stack of ceramic layers with two electrical leads. To protect the ceramic against external influences, a metal case is often built around it. This case may also contain built-in springs to compress the ceramic to allow push and pull operation. The P-845 Closed Loop LVPZT Translator (Fig. xx) is one example of a low voltage translator with internal spring preload and integrated high-resolution strain gage position sensor. This translator provides displacement to 90 microns and stiffness to 200 N/?m. It can handle loads up to 300 kilograms and withstand pulling forces to 700 N (see "PZT Actuators" section for details). Applications include vibration cancellation, shock wave generation and machine tool positioning for fabrication of non-spherical contact lens surfaces. Fig. xx, P844-20 P-845 Closed Loop LVPZT Translator PI offers PZT stack translators with travel ranges from a few microns for small designs to as much as 200 microns for 200 mm long units. In some applications, space restrictions do not allow for such long stacks. In these cases, it is possible to use mechanical lever amplifiers to decrease the length of the ceramic stack. The increase in travel gained with a mechanical amplifier reduces the actuator's stiffness and maximum operating frequency. Other Basic Actuators Apart from stack translators, a number of other basic PZT actuators are available: bender actuators providing long travel (millimeter range), contraction actuators, tube actuators, shear actuators etc. See "Basic Designs of Piezoelectric Positioning Elements" , page 34 for more information. Actuators with Motion Amplifiers & Trajectory Control In some applications a stack actuator alone is not enough to perform complex tasks. For example, when straight motion is needed and only nanometer deviation from the ideal trajectory can be tolerated, a stack translator cannot be used because it may tilt as much as a few 10 arcseconds while expanding. If the stack and the part to be moved are decoupled and a precision guiding system is employed, exceptional trajectory control can be achieved. The best guiding precision can be achieved with flexures. Fig. xx shows one example of a piezoelectrically driven miniature flexure stage with integrated flexure guiding system and motion amplifier. The stage is made of stainless steel and all flexures are wire EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining) cut. The flexures are computer designed by an FEA (Finite Element Analysis) program. The central part of the stage can move +/- 50 micrometers along one axis. The movement is accomplished by an integrated 3:1 lever driven by a 30 micron PZT stack. The stack is oriented parallel to the direction of motion and pushes a spherical tip constructed integrally to the lever. The resonant frequency of the unloaded stage is 1 kHz (high when the lever amplification is considered). Fig. xx, P780 P-780 PZT Flexure NanoPositioner and Scanning with integrated motion amplifier The lever is connected to the platform by a flat spring which is very stiff in the push/pull direction but flexible in the lateral direction. This flexibility ensures straight stage motion with minimum tilt and lateral deviation. The system runout and flatness are less than 5 nanometers and even this low figure can be reduced with a larger flexure base (sub-nanometer, sub-microradian flatness can be achieved with actively error compensated multi-axis systems (see "PZT Flexure NanoPositioners" section for details). The flexure design is not limited to single axis stages; systems with up to six degrees of freedom are available. Single- and multi-axis flexure positioners are used in research, laboratory and industrial applications such as disk drive testing, mask aligners for X-Ray steppers, adaptive optics, precision machining, fiber aligners, scanning microscopy, autofocus systems for surface profilers and hydraulic servo valves. Piezo Actuators Combined with Motorized Long Range Positioning Systems Piezo actuators can be combined with other actuators to form long range, high resolution systems. A good example is the M-224.50/P-250 combination of a piezo actuator with a motor-driven lead screw (Fig. xx). This combination provides 25 mm coarse range (versions with 50 mm are available) but preserves the high resolution characteristics intrinsic to PZTs. Coarse motion is provided by a micrometer with a non-rotating tip driven by a DC motor/encoder/gearhead unit capable of < 0.1 ?m resolution. A short PZT stack providing sub-nanometer resolution is mounted inside the micrometer tip. Both piezo and DC motor can be computer controlled. Fig. xx, M224-50-P250 Combination of M-224 DC-Mike Linear Actuator and P-250 PZT Translator Design Points to Remember Piezo actuators offer unique and compelling advantages in nanometer resolution and high speed applications. To obtain maximum performance while avoiding problems, however, piezoelectric characteristics need to be considered. Pulling, shear and torsional forces can damage the PZT ceramic. Standard PZT ceramics are limited to a maximum operating temperature of 150 °C. PZT ceramics must be protected from humidity or fluid contamination (like other electric materials and actuators). Close contact between the PZT user and the manufacturer assures the right actuator design is chosen for your application. PI has 25 years of experience in designing piezoelectric actuators and systems and offers a wide variety of options which can adapt PZTs to various environmental conditions. Fundamentals of Piezoelectricity and Piezo Actuators The following pages give a detailed overview of piezo actuator theory and their operation. For basic knowledge read "Basic Introduction to NanoPositioning with Piezoelectric Technology". For definition of units, dimensions and terms, see "Glossary" and "Units and Dimensions" on page 8, 9. Material Properties Since the piezo effect exhibited by natural materials such as quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salt, etc. is very small, polycrystalline ferroelectric ceramic materials such as BaTiO3 and Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) have been developed with improved properties. Ferroelectric ceramics become piezoelectric when poled. PZT ceramics are available in many variations and are still the most widely used materials for actuator or sensor applications today. PZT crystallites are centro-symmetric cubic (isotropic) before poling and after poling exhibit tetragonal symmetry (anisotropic structure) below the Curie temperature (see Fig. xx). Above this temperature they lose the piezoelectric properties. Fig. xx, PZTcell Piezoelectric elementary cell; (1) before poling (2) after poling Charge separation between the positive and negative ions is the reason for electric dipole behavior. Groups of dipoles with parallel orientation are called Weiss domains. The Weiss domains are randomly oriented in the raw PZT material, before the poling treatment has been finished. For this purpose an electric field (> 2000 V/mm) is applied to the (heated) piezo ceramics. With the field applied, the material expands along the axis of the field and contracts perpendicular to that axis. The electric dipoles align and roughly stay in alignment upon cooling. The material now has a remanent polarization (which can be degraded by exceeding the mechanical, thermal and electrical limits of the material). As a result, there is a distortion that causes growth in the dimension aligned with the field and a contraction along the axes normal to the electric field. When an electric voltage is applied to a poled piezoelectric material, the Weiss domains increase their alignment proportional to the voltage (see Fig. xx). The result is a change of the dimensions (expansion, contraction) of the PZT material. Fig. xx, Dipoles Electric dipoles in Weiss domains; (1) unpoled ferroelectric ceramic, (2) during and (3) after poling (piezoelectric ceramic) PZT Ceramics Manufacturing Process PI manufactures its own piezo ceramic materials at the PI Ceramic factory. The process starts with mixing and ball milling of the raw materials. Next, the mixture is heated to 75% of the sintering temperature to accelerate reaction of the components. The polycrystalline, calcinated powder is ball milled again to increase its reactivity. Granulation with the binder is next to improve processing properties. After shaping and pressing the (green) ceramics is heated to 750 ? to burn out the binder. The next phase is sintering at temperatures between 1250° C and 1350° C. The ceramic block is cut, ground, polished, lapped, etc., to the desired shape and tolerance. Electrodes are applied by sputtering or screen printing processes. The last step is the poling process which takes place in a heated oil bath at electrical fields up to several kV/mm. Multilayer PZT actuators require a different manufacturing process. After milling a slurry is prepared. A foil casting process allows layer thickness down to 20 µm. Next, the sheets are screen printed and laminated. A compacting process increases density of the "green" ceramics and removes air trapped between the layers. The final steps are the binder burnout, sintering (co-firing) at temperatures below 1100 ? C, end termination and poling. All processes, especially the heating and sintering cycles must be controlled to very tight tolerances. The smallest change affects quality and properties of the PZT material. 100% final testing of the piezo material and components at PI Ceramic guarantees the highest product quality. Definition of Piezoelectric Coefficients and Directions Because of the anisotropic nature of PZT ceramics, effects are dependent on direction (see Fig. xx). To identify directions the axes, termed 1, 2, and 3, are introduced (analogous to X, Y, Z of the classical right hand orthogonal axial set). The axes 4,5 and 6 identify rotations (shear). Fig. xx, polarsys Orthogonal system describing the properties of a poled piezoelectric ceramic. Axis 3 is the poling direction. The direction of polarization (3 axis) is established during the poling process by a strong electrical field applied between two electrodes. For actuator applications the piezo properties along the poling axis are most essential (largest deflection). Piezoelectric materials are characterized by several coefficients: Examples are: • dij: Strain coefficients [m/V]: strain developed (m/m) per electric field applied (V/m) or (due to the sensor / actuator properties of PZT material) Charge output coefficients [C/N]: charge density developed (C/m²) per given stress (N/m²). • gij: Voltage coefficients or field output coefficients [Vm/N]: open circuit electric field developed (V/m) per applied mechanical stress (N/m²). or (due to the sensor / actuator properties of PZT material) strain developed (m/m) per applied charge density (C/m²) • kij: Coupling coefficients [no dimensions]. The coefficients are energy ratios describing the conversion from mechanical to electrical energy or vice versa. k² is the ratio of energy stored (mechanical or electrical) to energy (mechanical or electrical) applied. Other important parameters are the Young's modulus Y (describing the elastic properties of the material) and the relative dielectric coefficients (permittivity) ? (describing the capacitance of the material). To link electrical and mechanical quantities double subscripts (e.g. dij) are introduced. The first subscript gives the direction of the excitation, the second describes the direction of the system response. Example: d33 applies when the electric field is along the polarization axis (direction 3) and the strain (deflection) is along the same axis. d31 applies if the electric field is in the same direction as before, but the strain is in the 1 axis (orthogonal to the polarization axis) In addition the superscripts "S, T, E, D" are introduced. They describe an electrical or mechanical boundary condition. Definition: S = strain = constant (mechanically clamped) T = stress = constant (not clamped) E = field = constant (short circuit) D = electrical displacement = constant (open circuit) The individual piezoelectric parameters are related by several equations that are not explained here because they are not important for the user of piezo actuators. Note: It should be clearly understood that the piezoelectric coefficients described above are not independent constants. They vary with temperature, pressure, electric field, form factor, mechanical and electrical boundary conditions etc. The coefficients only describe material properties under small signal conditions. Compound components such as PZT stack actuators, let alone preloaded actuators or lever amplified systems cannot be described sufficiently by these material parameters. This is why each component or system manufactured by PI is characterized by specific data such as stiffness, load capacity, displacement, resonant frequency, etc., acquired by individual measurements. Resolution Since the displacement of a piezo actuator is based on the orientation of electrical dipoles in the elementary PZT cells, the resolution depends on the electrical field applied and is theoretically unlimited. Infinitesimally small changes in operating voltage are converted to a smooth linear movement (see Fig. xx). No threshold voltages influence the constant motion. Fig. xx: P170nano Response of a P-170 HVPZT translator to a ± 1V, 200 Hz triangular drive signal. Note that one division is only 2 nanometers. Piezo actuators are used in atomic force microscopes to produce motion less than the diameter of an atom. Since displacement is proportional to the applied voltage, optimum resolution cannot be achieved with noisy, unstable voltage sources. Note: The above presented performance can only be provided by frictionless and stictionless solid state actuators such as PZTs. "Traditional" technologies used in motion positioners (stepper or DC servo motor drives in combination with dovetails, ball bearings, and roller bearings) all have varying degrees of friction and stiction. This fundamental property limits resolution, causes wobble, hysteresis, backlash, and an uncertainty in position repeatability - limiting their practical usefulness to a precision of two orders of magnitude less than with PI PZT NanoPositioners. Amplifier Noise As stated above, amplifier noise directly influences the position stability (resolution) of a piezo actuator. Some vendors specify the noise value of their PZT driver electronics in millivolts. This information is of little use without spectral information. If the noise occurs in a frequency band far beyond the resonant frequency of the mechanical system, its influence on mechanical resolution and stability can be neglected. If it coincides with the resonant frequency, it will have a more significant influence on the system stability. Therefore, meaningful data can only be acquired if resolution of the complete system - piezo actuator and drive electronics - is measured in terms of nanometers rather than millivolts. For further information see "Position Servo Control (Closed Loop Operation)". Displacement of Piezo Actuators (Stack & Contraction Type) Note: PI PZTs are designed for industrial reliability. Displacement, operating voltage range and load capability in the technical data tables are realistic figures with regard to safe operation in conditions not restricted to research labs. Since we manufacture our own ceramics (in contrast to most other PZT vendors) we can easily modify material parameters to trade lifetime for displacement. When you are looking for piezo actuators to be included in your application, "Maximum Displacement" may not be the only important design parameter. Displacement of PZT ceramics is a function of the applied electric field strength E, the piezoelectric material used, the length L of the PZT ceramics and the force F acting on the PZT. The material properties can be described by the piezoelectric strain coefficients dij. These coefficients describe the relationship between the applied electrical field and the mechanical strain produced. The displacement ?L of an unloaded single layer piezo actuator can be estimated by the equation: ?L = S*Lo ? ±E*dij*Lo (x.x) Where S = strain (relative length change ?L/L, without dimension) Lo = ceramic length [m] E = electrical field strength [V/m] dij, = material properties d33 describes the strain parallel to the polarization vector of the ceramics (thickness) and d31 the strain orthogonal to the polarization vector (width). d33 and d31 are sometimes referred to as "piezo gain". See Fig. xx for explanation. The strain coefficient d33 applies for PZT stack actuators, d31 applies for tube and strip actuators. Fig. xx, d33expans Elongation and contraction of a PZT disk when a voltage is applied. Note that d31 (affects the lateral deformation ?D) is negative. Note: For the material used in standard PI piezo actuators, d33 is on the order of 450 to 650 x 10-12 m/V, d31 is on the order of -200 to -300 x 10-12 m/V. These figures only apply to the raw material at room temperature under small signal conditions. For standard PI PZTs, the allowable field strength ranges from 1 to 2 kV/mm in the poling direction and up to 300 V/mm inverse to the poling direction (semi-bipolar mode), see Fig. xx for details. The maximum voltages depend on the ceramic properties and the insulating materials. Exceeding the maximum voltage may cause dielectric breakdown and irreversible damage of the PZT. Fig. xx, butterflyhys Response of a PZT actuator to a bipolar drive voltage. When a certain threshold voltage (negative to the polarization direction) is exceeded, reversion of polarization can occur. With the inverse field, negative expansion (contraction) occurs to yield an additional 20 % of the nominal displacement (see "Lifetime of PZTs", page 33). If both the regular and inverse electric field are used, a relative expansion (strain) up to 0.2 % is achievable with PZT stack actuators. Stacks can be built with as aspect ratios up to 12:1 (length:diameter). Maximum travel for medium size stack piezo actuators (15 mm diameter), is therefore limited to approximately 200 ?m. Longer travel ranges can be achieved by mechanical amplification techniques. See "Piezo Actuators with Integrated Lever Motion Amplifier", page 36. Hysteresis (open loop PZTs) Hysteresis can eliminated by closed loop PZT actuators (see Position Servo Control (Closed Loop Operation), page 29). Similar to electromagnetic devices, open loop piezo actuators exhibit hysteresis (they are also referred to as ferroelectric actuators). Hysteresis is based on crystalline polarization effects and molecular friction. The absolute displacement generated by an open loop PZT depends on the applied electric field and the piezo gain which is related to the remanent polarization. Since the remanent polarization and therefore the piezo gain is affected by the electric field applied to the piezo, its deflection depends on whether it was previously operated at a higher or a lower voltage (and some other effects). Hysteresis is typically on the order of 10 to 15 % of the commanded motion (see Fig. xx). Fig. xx, hystcurves Hysteresis curves of an open loop piezo actuator for various peak voltages. The hysteresis is related to the distance moved. E.g. if the drive voltage of a 50 µm piezo actuator is changed by 10 %, (? 5 µm motion) the position repeatability is still on the order of only 1 % full travel or better than 1 µm. Classical motor driven leadscrew positioners will hardly beat this repeatability. For periodic motion, hysteresis does not affect repeatability. PI closed loop piezo actuator systems eliminate hysteresis. PI offers these systems for applications requiring the absolute position information, as well as motion with high linearity, repeatability and accuracy in the nanometer and sub-nanometer range (see "Position Servo Control (Closed Loop Operation)", page 29). For positioning where the travel is controlled by an external servo loop (e.g. the eyes and hands of the operator or a sophisticated electronics system), hysteresis behavior and linearity are of secondary importance since they can be compensated for by the external loop. Example: Piezoelectrically driven fiber couplers derive the control signal from the optical power transmitted from one fiber to the other. The goal is to maximize the transmission rate, not to determine the exact position. An open loop PZT system is sufficient for this application offering unlimited resolution, fast response, no backlash and no stick/slip effect. Creep (Drift) (open loop PZTs) Creep only occurs with open loop PZTs. Like hysteresis, creep is related to the effect of the applied voltage on the remanent polarization of the piezo ceramics. Creep decreases logarithmically with time. If the operating voltage of a (open loop) PZT is increased (decreased), the remanent polarization (piezo gain) continues to increase (decrease), manifesting itself in a slow creep (positive or negative) after the voltage change is complete. The following equation describes the effect: ?L(t) ? ?L(1+?*lg*(t/0.1)) (x.x) Creep of PZT motion as a function of time. where ?L = displacement 0.1 seconds after the voltage change is complete [m]. ? = creep factor which is dependent on the properties of the actuator (on the order of 0.01 to 0.02). Maximum creep (after a few hours) can add up to a few % of the commanded motion. (see "Position Servo Control (Closed Loop Operation)", page 29 for drift elimination. Fig. xx, creep Creep of open loop PZT motion after a 60 ?m change in length as a function of time. Creep is on the order of 1 % of the last commanded motion per time decade. For periodic motion, creep does not affect repeatability. Aging Aging refers to reduced piezo gain as a result of the depoling process. Aging can be an issue for sensor or charge generation applications (direct piezo effect), but with actuator applications it is negligible, because repoling occurs every time a higher electric field (in the poling direction) is applied to the element. Mechanical Considerations Maximum Applicable Forces (Compressive Load Limit, Tensile Load Limit) The mechanical strength values of PZT ceramic material (given in the literature) is often confused with the practical long term load capacity of a PZT actuator. PZT ceramic material can withstand pressures up to 250 MPa (2500 x 105 N/m²) before it breaks mechanically. For practical applications, this value must not be approached because depolarization occurs at pressures on the order of 20 to 30 % of the mechanical limit. For actuators (which are a combination of several materials) additional rules apply. Parameters such as aspect ratio, buckling, interaction at the interfaces etc. must be considered. If the maximum compressive force for a PZT is exceeded, damage to the ceramics as well as depolarization may occur. The load capacity data listed for PI actuators is a conservative value which allows long lifetime. Standard PI PZT stack actuators can withstand compressive forces to several 10,000 N (? several tons). Tensile loads of non preloaded PZTs are limited to 5 - 10 % of the compressive load limit. PI offers a variety of piezo actuators with internal spring preload for extended tensile load capacity. Preloaded elements are highly recommended for dynamic applications. Shear forces must be isolated from the PZT ceramics by external measures (flexure guides, etc.). Stiffness Note: There is no international standard for measuring piezo actuator stiffness. Therefore stiffness data of different manufacturers cannot be compared without additional information. When calculating force generation, resonant frequency, system response, etc., piezo stiffness is an important parameter. In solid bodies stiffness depends on the Young's Modulus which is the ratio of stress (force per unit area) to strain (change in length per unit length). It is generally described by the spring constant kT, relating the influence of an external force to the dimensional change of the body. This narrow definition does not apply fully for PZT ceramics; large and small signal conditions, static and dynamic operation, open and shorted electrodes must be distinguished. The poling process of PZT ceramics leaves a remanent strain in the material which depends on the magnitude of polarization. The polarization is affected by both the drive voltage and external forces. When an external force is applied to poled PZT ceramics, the dimensional change depends on the stiffness of the ceramic material and the change of the remanent strain (caused by the polarization change). The equation LN = F/kT is only valid for small forces and small signal conditions. For larger forces, an additional term describing the influence of the polarization changes, is superimposed on stiffness (kT). Since piezo ceramics are active materials, they produce an electrical response (charge) when mechanically stressed (e.g. in dynamic operation). When the electric charge cannot be drained from the PZT, it generates a counter force to the mechanical stress. This is why a PZT element with open electrodes appears stiffer than one with shorted electrodes. With actuators (compound structures of different active and passive materials) the scenario is even more complicated. The above discussion explains why the (dynamically measured) resonant frequency of a piezo actuator does not necessarily match the results calculated with the "simple harmonic oscillator equation”: f0 = (1/2?)*?(kT/meff) with statically measured stiffness. (For more details see "Resonant Frequency"). Since stiffness values of PZT actuators are not constants they can only be used to estimate the behavior under certain conditions and to compare different PZT actuators of one manufacturer. Force Generation In most applications, piezo actuators are used to produce displacement. If used in a restraint, they can generate forces. Force generation is always coupled with a reduction in displacement. The maximum force (blocked force) a piezo actuator can generate depends on its stiffness and maximum displacement. See also "Displacement with External Forces", page 22. Fmax ? kT*?LO (x.x) Maximum force that can be generated in an infinitely rigid restraint (infinite spring constant). At maximum force generation, displacement is zero. where ?L0 = max. nominal displacement without external force or restraint [m] kT = PZT actuator stiffness [N/m] In actual applications the load spring constant can be larger or smaller than the PZT spring constant. The force Fmax eff generated by the PZT is: Fmax eff ? kT*?L0 (1-kT/(kT+kS)) (x.x) where ?L0= displacement (without external force or restraint) kT = PZT actuator stiffness [N/m] ks = spring stiffness [N/m] Effective force a piezo actuator can generate in a yielding restraint. Example: Force generation of P-845.20 (see page 24 in "PZT Actuators" section). The PZT can produce a maximum force of 30 ?m * 100 N/?m = 3000 N. When force generation is maximum, displacement is zero. At full displacement no force can be generated (see Fig. xx for details). Fig. xx, forcegen Force Generation vs. Displacement of a P-845.20 LVPZT actuator at various operating voltages. The points where the dashed lines (external spring curves) intersect the PZT force/displacement curves determine the force and displacement for a given setup with an external spring. Maximum work can be produced when the stiffness of the PZT actuator and external spring are identical. Note: it must be understood that a piezo actuator can only generate considerable force if it is directly coupled (no slack!) to an element which is stiff when compared to the PZT. Example: A piezo actuator is to be used in a metal sheet embossing application. At rest (zero position) the distance between the PZT tip and the sheet is 30 microns (given by mechanical system tolerances). A force of 500 N is required to emboss the metal. Q: Can a 60 µm actuator with a stiffness of 100 N/µm be used? A: Under ideal conditions this actuator can generate a force of 30 x 100 N = 3000 N. (30 microns are lost motion due to the distance between the sheet and the PZT tip). In reality the force generation depends on the stiffness of the metal and the support. If the support was a soft material, with a stiffness of 10 N/µm the PZT could only generate a force of 300 N onto the metal when operated at maximum drive voltage. If the support was stiff but the metal itself was very soft (gold, aluminum, etc.) it would yield and the piezo actuator still could not generate the required force. If both the support and the material were stiff enough, but the PZT mount was too soft, the force generated by the PZT would push the actuator away from the material to be embossed. The situation is similar to lifting a car with a jack. If the ground (or the car's body) is too soft, the jack will run out of travel before it generates enough force to lift the wheels off the ground. Displacement with External Forces Like any other actuator, a piezo actuator is compressed when a force is applied (see "Stiffness", page12 for details). Two cases must be considered when operating a PZT with a load: a) the load remains constant during the motion process b) the load changes during the motion process. Case a (Force = constant) Zero point is offset A mass is installed on the PZT which applies a force F = M g (M: mass, g: acceleration due to gravity). The zero point will be offset by an amount ?LN ? F/kT, where kT equals the stiffness of the PZT. If this force is within the specified load limit (technical data), full displacement can be obtained at full operating voltage (see Fig. xx). ?LN ? F/kT (x.x) Zero point offset with constant force where ?LN = Zero point offset [m] F = Force (generated by mass and gravity) [N] kT = PZT actuator stiffness [N/m] Fig. xx, zero-offset Zero point offset with constant force (mass). Example: Q: How large is the zero point offset of a 30 µm PZT actuator with a stiffness of 100 N/µm if a load of 20 kg is applied and what is the maximum displacement with this load? A: The load of 20 kg generates a force of 20 kg * 9.81 m/s2 = 196 N. With a stiffness of 100 N/?m, the piezo actuator is compressed slightly less than 2 ?m. The maximum displacement of 30 µm is not affected by this constant force. Case b (Force on the PZT is a spring) Force = Function (?L): displacement is reduced For PZT operation with spring loads different rules apply. The "spring" could be an I-beam or a single fiber each with its characteristic stiffness or spring constant. Part of the displacement generated by the piezo effect is lost due to its elasticity of the piezo element. The total available displacement can be related to the spring stiffness of by the following equations: ?L ? ?L0 (kT/(kT+kS)) (x.x) Maximum displacement of a piezo actuator acting against a spring load. ?LR ? ?L0 (1- kT/(kT+kS)) (x.x) Maximum displacement loss due to external spring force. In the case where the spring stiffness ks is ? (infinitely rigid restraint) the PZT only acts as a force generator. where ?L = displacement with external spring load [m] ?LO: max. nominal displacement without external force or restraint [m] ?LR = lost displacement caused by the external spring [m] ks = spring stiffness [N/m] kT = PZT actuator stiffness Fig. xx, PZTvsSpring Effective displacement of a piezo actuator acting against a spring load. Note: When designing (internally or externally) preloaded PZT systems, the stiffness of the preload spring should be less than 1/10 of the PZT stiffness. Otherwise too much of the unloaded displacement would be sacrificed. If the preload spring has the same stiffness as the PZT, displacement will be cut in half. Example: Q: What is the maximum displacement of a 15 µm PZT translator with a stiffness of 50 N/µm, mounted in an elastic restraint with spring constant ks (stiffness) of 100 N/?m ? A: Equation x.x shows that the displacement is reduced in an elastic restraint. The spring constant of the external restraint is twice the value of the piezo translator. The achievable displacement is therefore limited to 5 ?m (1/3 of the nominal travel). Mechanical Considerations for Dynamic Operation of PZTs Dynamic Forces Every time the PZT drive voltage changes, the piezo element changes its dimensions (if not blocked). Due to the inertia of the PZT mass (plus any additional mass), a rapid change will generate a force (pushing or pulling) acting on the piezo. The maximum force is equal to the blocked force described by: Fmax ? ± kT*?L0 (x.x) Maximum force available to accelerate the piezo mass plus any additional mass. where ?L0 = max. nominal displacement without external force or restraint [m] kT = PZT actuator stiffness [N/m] Tensile forces must be compensated for by a mechanical preload (inside the actuator or external) in order to prevent damage to the ceramics. Preload should be around 20 % of the compressive load limit, with soft preload springs soft compared to the PZT stiffness (1/10 or less). In sinusoidal operation with frequency f and the amplitude ?L/2, peak forces can be expressed as Fdyn = ±4?2*meff*(?L/2)*f2 (x.x) Dynamic forces on a PZT in sinusoidal operation with frequency f. where Fdyn = dynamic force [N] meff = effective mass [kg] ?L = peak to peak displacement [m] f = frequency [Hz] The maximum permissible forces must be considered when choosing an operating frequency. Example: dynamic forces at 1000 Hz, 2 µm peak-peak, 1 kg load are approximately ± 40 N. Note: A guiding system (e.g. diaphragm type) is recommended when heavy loads or large mechanical parts (compared to the piezo actuator diameter) are moved dynamically. Without a guiding system there is a potential for tilt oscillations and other non-axial forces that may damage the PZT ceramics. Fig. xx, diaphrguid Recommended guiding for large masses Resonant Frequency In general, the resonant frequency of any spring/mass system is a function of its stiffness and effective mass (see Fig. xx). The resonant frequency given in the technical data tables always refers to the unloaded actuators, rigidly mounted on one end. f0 = (1/2?)*?(kT/meff) (x.x) Resonant frequency of an ideal spring/mass system. where f0 = resonant frequency of the unloaded actuator [Hz] kT = actuator stiffness [N/m] meff = effective mass (about 1/3 of the mass of the ceramic stack plus any installed end pieces) [kg] Note: Due to the non-ideal spring behavior of PZT ceramics, the theoretical result of the above equation does not necessarily match the real-world behavior of a PZT system. When adding a mass to the actuator the resonant frequency drops according to the following equation: f0'=f0 ?(meff/(meff+M)) (x.x) Resonant frequency with additional mass M. Fig. xx, eff-mass Effective mass of an actuator fixed on one end. The above equations show that increasing the mass on the actuator by a factor of 4 will reduce the response (resonant frequency) by a factor of 2. Increasing the spring preload on the actuator does not significantly affect its resonant frequency. The phase response of a PZT system can be approximated by a second order system and is described by ? ? 2 arc tan (f/f0) (x.x) ? = phase angle [deg] f0 = resonant frequency [Hz] f = operating frequency [Hz] How Fast Can a Piezo Actuator Expand? Fast response is one of the desirable features of piezo actuators. A rapid drive voltage change results in a rapid position change. This property is necessary in applications such as switching of valves/shutters, generation of shock-waves, vibration cancellation systems, etc. A PZT can reach its nominal displacement in approximately 1/3 of the period of the resonant frequency with significant overshoot (see Fig. xx). Tmin ?1/(3*fo) (x.x) Shortest rise time of a piezo actuator (requires an amplifier with sufficient output current and rise time). Fig. xx, overshoot Response of a lever amplified PZT actuator (low resonant frequency) to a rapid drive voltage change . For example, a piezo element with a 10 kHz resonant frequency can reach its nominal displacement within 30 µs. For more information see "Dynamic Operation (Switched)", page 28. Electrical Requirements for Piezo Operation / Driving a PZT General When operated far below the resonant frequency a PZT behaves as a capacitor where displacement is proportional to charge (first order estimation). PZT stack actuators are assembled with thin wafers of electroactive ceramic material electrically connected in parallel. Fig. xx, stackElCon Design of a PZT stack actuator. The (small signal) capacitance of a stack actuator can be estimated by C ? n*?0*?33*A/ds (x.x) Where n = number of layers ?0 = dielectric constant in vacuum [F/m] ?33 = relative dielectric constant [without dimension] A = electrode surface area [m²] ds = distance between the individual electrodes (layer-thickness) [m] The above equation shows that for a given actuator length l0 and a given disk thickness d0 capacitance is a quadratic function of the ratio d0 / d1 where d1 < d0. Therefore, the capacitance of a piezo actuator constructed of 100 µm thick layers is 100 times the capacitance of an actuator with 1 mm thick layers if the two actuators are the same length. Static Operation When electrically charged, the energy E = 1/2 CU2 is stored in a piezo actuator. Every change in the charge (and therefore in the displacement) of the PZT requires a current i: i= dQ/dt = C * (dU/dt) (x.x) Relationship of current and voltage for the piezo actuator Where i = current [A] Q = charge [Coulomb; A s] C = capacitance [Farad; As/V] U = voltage [V] t = time [s] For static operation only the leakage current has to be supplied. The high internal resistance reduces leakage currents to micro-amp or sub-micro-amp range. Even when disconnected from the electrical source, the charged actuator will not make a sudden move but return to its uncharged dimensions very slowly (> 1 hour). For slow position changes, very low current is required. For example an amplifier with an output current of 20 µA fully expands a 20 nF actuator within one second. (See section "PZT Control Electronics" for variety of PZT amplifiers). Dynamic Operation (Analog) PZTs can provide accelerations of thousands of g's and are perfectly suited for dynamic applications. Several parameters influence the dynamics of a PZT positioning system: Mechanical considerations: • If the piezo element is installed in a positioning mechanism (and sufficient electrical power from the amplifier is available), the maximum drive frequency can be limited by dynamic forces (see "Dynamic Forces", page 23). • The maximum operating frequency is also limited by the phase and amplitude response of the system (especially in closed loop systems). Rule of thumb: the higher the system resonant frequency the better the phase and amplitude response and the higher the usable frequency. Electrical considerations: • The amplifier output current and rise time determine the maximum operating frequency of a piezoelectric system. • In closed loop operation other parameters such as sensor bandwidth, phase margins and control algorithms determine the performance of a positioning system. The following equations describe the relationship between amplifier output current, voltage and operating frequency. They help determine the minimum specifications of a PZT amplifier for dynamic operation. iA ? f * C * Up-p (x.x) Average current for sinusoidal operation imax ? f * ? * C * Up-p (x.x) Peak current for sinusoidal operation fmax ? imax/(2 * C * Up-p) (x.x) Maximum operating frequency with triangular wave form as a function of the amplifier output current limit Where iA = average amplifier source/sink current [A] imax = peak amplifier source/sink current [A] fmax = maximum operating frequency [Hz] C = PZT actuator capacitance [Farad (As/V)] Up-p = peak-peak drive voltage [V] f = operating frequency [Hz] The average current and maximum current for each PI PZT amplifier can be found in the technical data. Note: The above equations explain why a Low Voltage PZT (100 µm layers, 100 V operating voltage, high capacitance) requires 10 times the driving current of a High Voltage PZT of similar size (1 mm layers, 1000 V operating voltage, low capacitance). Power requirements are similar. PI High/Low Voltage amplifiers are specially designed to meet the different requirements for driving High/Low Voltage actuators. Example: Q: What peak current is required to operate a HVPZT actuator with a nominal displacement of 40 µm @ 1000 V and capacitance of 40 nF with a sinusoidal wave form of 1000 Hz at 20 ?m displacement? A: With a nominal displacement of 40 ?m @ 1000 volts, approximately 500 Up-p are required to expand the actuator by 20 ?m. With equation x.x the peak current is calculated to be ? 63 mA. (Matching amplifiers can be found in the "PZT Control Electronics" section of this catalog). The following equations describe the relationship between (reactive) drive power, actuator capacitance, operating frequency and drive voltage. The average power a piezo driver has to be able to provide for sinusoidal operation is Pa ? C * Umax * Up-p * f (x.x) Peak power for sinusoidal operation is: Pmax ? ? * C * Umax * Up-p * f (x.x) Where Pa = average power [W] Pmax = peak power [W] C = PZT actuator capacitance [Farad (As/V)] f = operating frequency [Hz] Up-p = peak-peak drive voltage [V] Umax = maximum output voltage swing of the amplifier [V] Note: The PZT capacitance values indicated in the technical data tables are small signal values (measured at 1 V, 1000 Hz, 20? C, no load). The capacitance of PZT ceramics changes with amplitude, temperature, and load, up to 200% of the unloaded, small signal capacitance at room temperature. For detailed information on power requirements, refer to the amplifier frequency response graphs in the "PZT Control Electronics" section of this catalog. Instead of calculating the required drive power for a given application, it is easier to calculate the drive current because it grows linearly with both frequency and voltage (displacement). Output current capability for all PI High Voltage and Low Voltage amplifiers is given in the technical data tables (section "PZT Control Electronics"). Dynamic Operating Current Coefficient (DOCC) The Dynamic Operating Current Coefficient (DOCC) value is provided for each PI piezo translator to facilitate selection of the appropriate drive/control electronics. The DOCC is the electrical current (supplied by the amplifier) required to drive a PZT per unit frequency and unit displacement (sinewave operation). E.g. to find out if a selected amplifier can drive a given PZT at 50 Hz with 30 µm amplitude, multiply DOCC by 50 and 30 and check if the result is less than or equal to the average output current of the selected amplifier. Dynamic Operation (Switched) For applications such as shock wave generation or valve control, switched operation (on/off) may be sufficient. PZTs can provide motion with rapid rise and fall times with accelerations up to thousands of g's. (For consideration of dynamic forces see "Dynamic Forces", page 23). The simplest form of binary drive electronics for PZT applications would consist of a large capacitor that is "slowly" charged and rapidly discharged across the PZT. Equation x.x relates applied voltage (which corresponds to displacement) to time. U(t) = Uo + Up-p(1-e-t/RC) (x.x) Voltage on the piezo after switching event. Where U0 = start voltage [V] Up-p = peak-peak drive voltage [V] R = resistance in drive circuit [?] C = PZT actuator capacitance [Farad (As/V)] The voltage rises or falls exponentially with the RC time constant. Under static conditions the expansion of the PZT is proportional to the voltage. In reality, dynamic PZT processes cannot be described by a simple equation. Whenever the PZT expands or contracts, dynamic forces act on the ceramic material. These forces generate a (positive or negative) voltage in the piezo element which adds to the drive voltage. A PZT can reach its nominal displacement in approximately 1/3 of the period of the resonant frequency (see "How Fast Can a Piezo Actuator Expand?", page 25). For example, a piezo element with 10 kHz resonant frequency can reach its nominal displacement within 30 µs if amplifier current and rise time are sufficient. If the voltage rises fast enough to excite a resonant oscillation in the PZT, ringing and overshoot will occur. For charging with constant current (e.g. provided by a linear amplifier), the following equation applies: t ? C * (Up-p/imax) (x.x) Time to charge a PZT with constant current. (Minimum amplifier rise time must also be considered). Where t = time to charge to Up-p [s] C = PZT actuator capacitance [Farad (As/V)] Up-p = peak-peak drive voltage [V] imax = peak amplifier source/sink current [A] For fastest settling, switched operation is not the best solution. If the input signal rise time is limited to 1/f0 the overshoot can be reduced significantly. Pre-shaped input signals (optimized for minimum resonance excitation) reduce the time to reach a stable position. Heat Generation in a PZT at Dynamic Operation As mentioned before, PZTs are reactive loads and therefore require charge and discharge currents that increase with operating frequency. The thermal heat, P, generated in the actuator can be estimated with the following equation: P ? tan ? * f * C * Up-p2 (x.x) Heat production in a PZT. Where P = power converted to heat [W] tan ? = tangent of the loss angle (ratio of parallel resistance to parallel reactance)). f = operating frequency [Hz] C = PZT actuator capacitance [Farad (As/V)] Up-p = peak-peak drive voltage [V] For standard actuator PZT ceramics the loss angle is on the order of 0.01 to 0.02 (large signal conditions, smaller for small signal conditions). This means that up to 2% of the electrical power pumped into the actuator is converted to heat. Therefore, the maximum operating temperature can limit the PZT dynamics. For large amplitude and high frequency, operation cooling measures may be necessary. A temperature sensor mounted on the ceramics is suggested for monitoring purposes. PI is currently investigating the design of new PZT materials showing extremely low loss angles while still displaying a large d33 effect. These types of ceramics will allow high-frequency, long-term operation without cooling measures. In addition, a new generation of amplifiers employing energy recovery technology has been developed for high power applications. Fig. xx shows the block diagram of such an amplifier. Instead of dissipating the reactive power at the heat sinks, only the active power used by the piezo actuator has to be delivered. The energy not used in the actuator is returned to the amplifier and reused as supply voltage by a step-up transforming process. The combination of low loss, high energy PZT ceramics and amplifiers with energy recovery are the key to new high-dynamic piezo actuator applications in the near future. Fig. xx, Pwr-recAmp Block diagram of an amplifier with power recovery Position Servo Control (Closed Loop Operation) PI offers the largest selection of closed loop piezo actuators and systems worldwide. The advantages of position servo control are: • very good linearity, stability, repeatability and accuracy • automatic compensation for varying loads or forces • virtual infinite stiffness (within load limits) • elimination of hysteresis and creep effects PI Closed Loop PZT Actuators & Systems are equipped with position measuring systems providing sub-nanometer resolution and bandwidths up to 10 kHz. A servo controller (digital or analog) determines the output voltage to the PZT by comparing a reference signal (commanded position) to the actual sensor position signal. PI closed loop piezo actuators provide sub-nanometer resolution, repeatability and linearity to 0.03%. Fig. xx, ContrlBlock Block diagram of a typical PI Closed Loop PZT Positioning System. Fig. xx, CL-stage Closed loop position control of a stage driven by a piezo actuator. For optimum performance, the sensor is mounted directly at the object to be positioned. For maximum accuracy, it is necessary to mount the sensor as close as possible to the part whose position is to be controlled. Sometimes this is not possible for various reasons. PI offers piezo actuators with integrated sensors as well as external sensors. Fig. xx, P841resol Response of a Closed Loop PI PZT Actuator (P-841.10, 15 µm, strain gauge sensor) to a 3 nm peak-to-peak square wave control input signal, measured with servo control bandwidth set to 240 Hz and 2 msec settling time. Note the crisp response to the square wave control signal. Fig. xx, P410resol Response of a Closed Loop PI PZT Actuator (P-410.015, 15 µm, capacitive position sensor) shows true sub-nm positional stability, incremental motion and bidirectional repeatability. PZT Calibration Data Each PI PZT position servo controller is calibrated with the specific Closed Loop PZT (system) to achieve optimum displacement range, frequency response and settling time. This calibration is done at the factory and is free of charge. A report with plotted and tabulated positioning accuracy data will be supplied with the system. To optimize calibration, information about the specific application is needed. See "PZT Control Electronics" section for details. Fig. xx, OL-vs-CL Open loop vs. closed loop performance of a typical PI PZT actuator. High Resolution Sensors The following description explains the features of different high resolution sensor types used for closed loop control of PZT actuators. The given bandwidth is open loop bandwidth of the sensor. Closed loop bandwidth of a PZT/sensor/servo controller system is limited by the mechanical and electrical properties of the system. Strain Gage Sensors Based on the principle of electrical resistance. A resistive film bonded to the PZT stack changes resistance when strain is applied. Up to four strain gages (the actual configuration varies with the PZT construction) form a Wheatstone bridge driven by a DC voltage (5 to 10V). When the bridge resistance changes, electronics converts the resulting voltage change into a signal analogous to displacement. Resolution: better than 1 nm (for 15 µm actuator) Repeatability: up to 0.1% of nominal displacement Bandwidth: up to 5 kHz Advantages: • high bandwidth • high-vacuum compatible • extremely small (no extra mounting space /no reduction of active cross section causing reduced stiffness) • cost effective Other Features • low heat generation (0.01 to 0.05 W sensor excitation power) • long term position accuracy (> 1 h) may be affected by the bond between sensor and PZT ceramics • measuring principle (ceramic stack strain rather than top piece position) can lead to reduced accuracy with heavy loads (when buckling of the stack occurs). Examples: Most PI LVPZT and HVPZT actuators are available with strain gauge sensors for closed loop control (see "PZT Actuators" section). Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) Based on the principle of magnetic induction. Fig. xx, LVDTprin Principle diagram of an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) sensor A magnetic core, attached to the moving part, determines the amount of magnetic energy induced from the primary windings into the two differential secondary windings. The carrier frequency is typically 10 kHz. Resolution: up to 10 nm Repeatability: up to 0.1% of nominal displacement Bandwidth: up to 1 kHz Advantages: • good temperature stability • very good long term stability • controls the position of the moving part rather than the position of the PZT stack • cost effective Other features • outgassing of insulation materials may limit applications in UHV • extra space for mounting required Examples: P-780, P-721.10, P-762 (see "PZT Flexure NanoPositioners" section). Capacitive Position Sensors Based on the capacitance between two plates. The sensor consists of two RF excited plates that are part of a capacitive bridge. One plate is fixed, the other plate is connected to the object to be positioned. The distance between the plates is inversely proportional to the capacitance which is a measure for the displacement. Resolution on the order of picometers is achievable with short range capacitive position sensors. (See "Capacitive Displacement Sensors" for details). Resolution: better than 0.1 nm Repeatability: up to 0.1 nm Bandwidth: up to 10 kHz Advantages: • highest resolution of all commercially available sensors • excellent long term stability • excellent frequency response Other features: • extra space for mounting required • parallelism of the plates must be controlled for optimal performance of the plates Examples: P-500 series of Flexure Stages ("PZT Flexure NanoPositioners" section), P-410 series of Piezo Translators ("PZT Actuators" section). Fig. xx, cap-vs-intf Resolution of PI D-015 Capacitive Position Sensor compared to interferometer. Temperature Effects Two effects must be considered: a) Linear Thermal Expansion Thermal stability of PZT ceramics is better than most other materials (steel, aluminum etc.). It is characterized by the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE, ?) which specifies relative change in length ?L/L per unit change in temperature. The following values apply to HVPZT and LVPZT ceramics used in PI piezo actuators: HVPZT ceramics : ? ? 11 * 10-6/K LVPZT ceramics: ? ? -3.5 * 10-6/K The CTEs change with temperature, the values given above are valid for room temperature. b) Temperature Dependency of the Piezo Effect Piezo translators work in a wide temperature range. Since the piezo effect is based on electric fields it functions down to zero degrees Kelvin. For several reasons the magnitude of the piezoelectric effect (piezo gain) is dependent on the temperature; however around room temperature it is very stable. At cryogenic temperatures it reaches approximately 20 to 30 % of its room temperature value . See Fig. xx, for temperature dependency. Fig. xx, PZT-temp Temperature dependency of the piezo effect. PZT ceramics must be poled to exhibit the piezo effect. During polarization the ceramic is heated (to allow alignment of the dipoles) and an electric field is applied. Conversely, a poled PZT will depole when heated above the maximum allowed operating temperature. PI HVPZTs have a Curie temperature of 300 °C and can be operated up to 150 °C (with P-702.10 high temperature option). LVPZTs show a Curie temperature of 150 °C and can be operated up to 80 °C. See "Options" at the end of "PZT Actuators" section for temperature range modifications. Note: Closed loop piezo positioning systems are less sensitive to temperature changes than open loop systems. Optimum accuracy is achieved if the operating temperature is identical to the temperature during calibration (22 °C). See calibration test sheet for details. Environmental Considerations Application of PZTs in Normal Atmosphere The insulation materials used in standard piezo actuators are sensitive to humidity. These PZTs are not recommended in environments with high relative humidity (more than 75%). For higher humidity environments PI offers special systems with hermetically sealed stacks, or integrated dry air flushing mechanisms. Application of PZTs in Inert Gas Atmosphere Piezo actuators can be damaged if operated at maximum drive voltage in a helium or argon atmosphere. Low Voltage actuators are recommended for these conditions. To reduce the risk of dielectric breakdown, the PZTs should be operated at minimum possible voltage (HVPZTs: < 300 V, LVPZTs: < 80 V). Semi-bipolar operation helps to further reduce the electrical field strength while yielding reasonable displacement. Vacuum Application of PZTs When piezo actuators are used in a vacuum, two factors must be considered: 1) dielectric stability 2) outgassing The dielectric strength of a gas is a function of pressure. Air displays a high insulation capability at atmospheric pressure and below 10-2 Torr. However, in the range from 10 to 0.01 Torr (corona area) insulation properties are degraded. PZTs should not be operated in this range because an electric breakdown may occur. All PI piezo actuators can be operated at pressures below 0.01 Torr. Outgassing (of the insulation materials) may limit their use in applications where contamination or virtual leaks are an issue. Outgassing behavior varies from model to model depending on construction. High vacuum options for minimum outgassing are available for several standard LVPZTs and HVPZTs (see "PZT Actuators" section for details). UHV compatible PZT Flexure Positioners are available on request. Lifetime of PZTs The lifetime of a PZT is not limited by wear and tear. Tests have shown that PI PZTs can perform BILLIONS of cycles without loss of performance if operated under suitable conditions. Statistics show that most failures with piezo actuators occur because mechanical installation guidelines are not observed and mechanical stress, shear forces and torque exceed the permissible limits. PI offers a variety of preloaded actuators, ball tips, flexible tips and custom designs to eliminate these critical forces. Failures can also occur when humidity and conductive materials such as metal dust degrade the PZT's insulation strength, leading to dielectric breakdown. PI has designed hermetically sealed actuators for applications in critical environments. Example: The P-843.60 LVPZT (see "PZT Actuators" section) shall operate a switch with a stroke of 100 ?m. The switch shall be open for 70% and closed for 30 % of it's operating time. Optimum solution: The switch should be designed in a way that the open position is achieved with the lowest possible operating voltage. To reach a displacement of 100 ?m, a voltage amplitude of approximately 110 volts is required (nominal displacement @ 100 V is only 90 ?m). Since the P-843.60 can be operated with -20 volts, the closed position should be assigned to 90 V, and the open position to -20 volts. When the switch is not operating at all, the voltage on the PZT should be 0 volts. Basic Designs of Piezoelectric Positioning Elements Stack Design The active part of the positioning element consists of a stack of ceramic disks separated by thin metallic electrodes. Maximum operating voltage is proportional to the thickness of the disks. PI stack actuators are manufactured with layers from 0.02 to 1 mm thickness. Stack elements can withstand high pressure and show the highest stiffness of all piezo actuator designs. Since the ceramics cannot withstand large pulling forces, spring preloaded actuators are available. Stack models can be used for static and dynamic operation. For further information see "Maximum Applicable Forces (Compressive Load Limit, Tensile Load Limit)", page20. Displacement of a PZT stack actuator can be estimated by the following equation: ?L ? d33*n * U (x.x) where d33 = strain coefficient (field and deflection in polarization direction) [m/V] n = number of ceramic layers U = operating voltage [V] Example: P-845, etc. (see "PZT Actuators" section) Fig. xx, stackElCon Electrical Design of a Stack Translator Fig. xx, stackP170 Mechanical Design of a Stack Translator Laminar Design (Contraction Type Actuator) The active material in the laminar actuators consists of thin ceramic strips. The displacement of these actuators is perpendicular to the direction of polarization and electric field. When the voltage is increased the strip contracts. The piezo strain coefficient d31 (negative!) describes the relative change in length. It is on the order of 50% of d33. The maximum travel is a function of the length of the strips, while the number of strips arranged in parallel determines the stiffness and the stability of the element. Displacement of a PZT contraction actuator can be estimated by the following equation: ?L ? d31*L * U/d (x.x) where d31 = strain coefficient (deflection normal to polarization direction) [m/V] L = length of the PZT ceramics [m] U = operating voltage [V] d = thickness of one ceramic layer [m] Example: Laminar piezos are used in the P-280...P-282 Flexure Positioners (see "PZT Flexure NanoPositioners" section. Fig. xx, d31lamin Laminar Design Tube Design Fig. xx, PZT-tube Tube Design Monolithic ceramic tubes are yet another form of piezo actuator. Tubes are silvered inside and out and operate on the transversal piezo effect. When an electric voltage is applied between the outer and inner diameter, the tube contracts axially and radially. Axial contraction can be estimated by the following equation: ?L ? d31*L * U/d (x.x) where d31 = strain coefficient (deflection normal to polarization direction) [m/V] L = length of the PZT ceramic tube [m] U = operating voltage [V] d = wall thickness [m] ?d ? d33 * U where ?d = change in wall thickness [m] d33 = strain coefficient (field and deflection in polarization direction) [m/V] U = operating voltage [V] The radial contraction is a superposition of several effects and cannot be expressed by a simple equation. When the outside electrode of a tube is separated into four 90? segments, differential drive voltage of opposing electrodes will lead to bending of one end (if the other end is clamped). Scanner tubes that flex in X and Y are widely used in scanning probe microscopes. Fig. xx, Scan-Tube PZT Scanner Tube The scan range of a scanner tube is defined by ?x ? (2?2 * d31 * L2) / (? * ID * d) Where ?x = scan range in X and Y (for symmetrical electrodes) [m] d31 = strain coefficient (deflection normal to polarization direction) [m/V] L = length [m] ID = inner diameter [m] d = wall thickness [m] Tube actuators are not designed to withstand large forces. Application examples are scanning microscopy, ink jet printers etc. Bender Type Actuators (Bimorph and Multimorph Design) A PZT bimorph operates similarly to a bimetallic strip in a thermostat (see Fig. xx.). When the ceramic is energized the metal substrate is deflected with a motion proportional to the applied voltage. Bimorph actuators providing motion up to 1000 µm are available and greater travel range is possible. Apart from the classical strip form, bimorph disk actuators are available, where the center arches when a voltage is supplied. Fig. xx, bimorph Bimorph design (strip and disk translator) Instead of a PZT/metal combination PZT/PZT combinations are possible where individual PZT layers are operated in opposite mode (contraction/expansion). Two basic versions are available: the two electrode bimorph (serial bimorph) and the three electrode bimorph (parallel bimorph), see Fig. xx. In the serial type, one of the two ceramic plates is always operated opposite to the direction of polarization. To avoid depolarization the maximum electric field is limited to a few hundred volts per millimeter. Serial bimorph benders are widely used as force sensors. Fig. xx, par-ser-bim Parallel Bimorph and Serial Bimorph Instead of two plates, monolithic, multilayer type PZT benders are available, too. Similar to multilayer stack actuators, they run on a low operating voltage (60 to 100 V). Bender type actuators provide large motion in a small package at the expense of stiffness, force and speed. Example: P-286 - 289 disk translators P-803 Multilayer bender actuators Piezo Actuators with Integrated Lever Motion Amplifier Piezo actuators or positioning stages can be designed in a way that a lever motion amplifier is integrated into the system, increasing the PZT displacement by a factor of typically 2 to 20. To maintain sub-nanometer resolution with the increased travel range, the leverage system must be stiff, backlash and friction-free which is why ball or roller bearings cannot be used. PI employs a proprietary Finite Element Analysis (FEA) computer program to design PZT Flexure NanoPositioners with or without integrated lever motion amplifiers (see Fig. xx, Fig. xx). Fig. xx, SimpLev Simple lever motion amplifier. Piezo positioners with integrated motion amplifier have several advantages over standard piezo actuators: • compact size compared to stack actuators with equal displacement • reduced capacitance (= reduced drive current) In combination with a flexure guiding system, extremely straight multiaxis motion is possible (see PZT Flexure NanoPositioners, page 37). When using (ideal) levers to amplify motion of any primary drive system, the following rules apply: ksys = k0 / r² ?Lsys = ?L0 * r fres-sys = fres-0 / r where ?L = displacement [m] ksys = stiffness of the lever amplified system [N/m] k0 = stiffness of the primary drive system (PZT stack and joints) [N/m] r = lever transmission ratio fres-sys = resonant frequency of the amplified system [Hz] fres-0 = resonant frequency of the primary drive system (PZT stack and joints) [Hz] Note: The above equations are based on an ideal lever design with infinite stiffness and zero mass. They also imply that no stiffness is lost at the coupling interface between the PZT stack and the lever. In real applications the design of a good lever requires a sound understanding of micromechanics. A balance between mass, stiffness and cost must be found while maintaining the zero friction and zero backlash conditions. Coupling the PZT stack to the lever system is actually quite complex. The coupling must be very stiff in the pushing direction but should be soft in all other degrees of freedom to avoid damage to the ceramics. If the stiffness of the interface is on the same order of the PZT stack a reduction of 50% of the original stack stiffness results. Our experience states that most often PZT stiffness is not the limiting factor when using piezo actuators in a mechanical arrangement. PI has more than 25 years experience in designing piezo actuators and flexure systems. Our engineers will be happy to help you find an optimal solution for your positioning task. PZT Flexure NanoPositioners For applications where extremely straight motion in one or more axes is needed and only nanometer deviation from the ideal trajectory can be tolerated, stacks, tubes and other basic actuators are not ideal because they may exhibit too much off-axis error. At the same time they may not yield sufficient motion in a small enough package. PI PZT Flexure NanoPositioners with passive or active trajectory control provide an excellent solution to the above problems. A flexure is a frictionless, stictionless device based on the elastic deformation (flexing) of a solid material. Sliding and rolling are entirely eliminated. In addition to absence of internal friction, flexure devices exhibit high stiffness and load capacity. Flexures are also less sensitive to shock and vibration than other guiding systems. Basic parallelogram flexure actuators show a second-order cross coupling (parasitic motion) between axes. This movement is called arcuate motion (travel is in an arc motion). It can lead to small out-of-plane errors on the order of 0.1% of the distance traveled (see Fig. xx). The error can be estimated by the following equation: ?H ? (±?L/2)² /2H (x.x) where ?H = Lateral runout (out-of-plane error) [m] ?L = Distance traveled [m] H = Length of the flexures [m] Fig. xx, par-flex Basic parallelogram flexure guiding system with motion amplification. The amplification r (transmission ratio) is given by (a+b)/a. For applications where this error is undesirable, PI has designed an anti-runout multi-flexure guiding system. This special design, employed in most PI flexure stages eliminates the cross coupling inherent in common parallelogram guiding systems and provides flatness and straightness in the nanometer and micro-radian range, respectively (see Fig. xx). The excellent bidirectional trajectory repeatability of PI's design allows for higher throughput in demanding applications. Fig. xx, antirunout Anti-Runout Flexure Guiding System. No lateral runout. For applications requiring sub-nanometer and sub-µrad flatness and straightness, PI offers a system with integrated multi-axis error compensation (active trajectory control). It measures and actively controls motion in all six degrees-of-freedom to sub-nanometer and sub-microradian tolerances. The exceptional flatness provided by this system is shown in Fig. xx. Fig. xx, ActivZ-cont Out-of-plane motion (Z) of an actively error compensated flexure stage over a 100 x 100 µm scanning range Note: flexure positioners are far superior to traditional positioners (ball bearings, crossed roller bearings, dovetails etc.) in terms of resolution, straightness and flatness. Inherent friction and stiction in these traditional designs limit applications to those requiring repeatability on the order of 0.5 to 0.1 µm.. Examples: See "PZT Flexure NanoPositioners" section. Mounting Guidelines Piezo actuators must be handled with care because the internal ceramic materials are fragile. 1. PZT stack actuators must only be stressed axially. Tilting and shearing forces must be avoided (by use of ball tips, flexible tips, etc.) because they will damage the actuators 2. PZTs without internal preload are sensitive to pulling forces. An external preload is recommended for applications requiring strong pulling forces (dynamic operation, heavy loads, etc.). 3. Maximum allowable torque for the top piece can be found in the technical data tables for all PZT stacks and must not be exceeded. Proper use of wrench flats to apply a counter torque to the top piece when a mating piece is installed will protect the ceramics from damage. 4. When PZTs are installed between plates a ball tip is recommended to avoid bending and shear forces. Failure to observe these installation guidelines can result in fracture of the PZT ceramics.